The AIDS virus is one of the most deadly and most Essay Example For Students

The AIDS virus is one of the most deadly and most Essay AZTAZT wide spread diseasesin the modern era. The disease was first found in 1981 as doctors around theUnited States began to report groups of young, homosexual men developing a rarepneumonia caused by an organism called Penumocystis carini. These patients thenwent on to develop many other new and rare complications that had previouslybeen seen only in patients with severely damaged immune systems. The Center forDisease Control in the United States named this new epidemic the acquiredimmunodeficiency syndrome and defined it by a specific set of symptoms. In 1983,researchers finally identified the virus that caused AIDS. They named the virusthe human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV. AIDS causes the immune system of theinfected patient to become much less efficient until it stops working altogether. We will write a custom essay on The AIDS virus is one of the most deadly and most specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The first drug that was approved by the American Food and Drugadministration for use in treating the AIDS virus is called AZT, which standsfor azido-thymidine. AZT was released under the brand name of Retrovir and itschemical name is Zidovudine, or ZDV. The structural name of AZT is 3-azido-3-deoxythymidine. AZT works by inhibiting the process of copying DNA in cells. More specifically, AZT, inhibits the reverse transcriptase enzyme, which isinvolved in the DNA replication process. When DNA is replicating in a cell,there is a specific enzyme that works along one side of the original DNA strandas the DNA is split into two strands, copying each individual nucleotide. Thisenzyme is only able to work in one direction along the nucleotide string,therefore a different enzyme, or rather a series of different enzymes isrequired to work in the opposite direction. Reverse transcriptase is one of theenzymes that is required to work in the opposite direction. AZT works by bondingto the reverse transcriptase enzyme, thereby making it unable to bond with thenucleotide string and making it unable to fulfill its role. This whole processis used by the HIV virus to replicate itself so that it can continue to infectmore cells. AZT was originally developed over 20 years ago for the treatment oflukemia. The concept behind this was that the AZT was supposed to terminate theDNA synthesis in the growing lukemia lymphocytes, thereby stopping the disease. AZT was rejected at this point because it failed to lengthen the lives of testanimals. The problem with the AZT drug is that it is not perfect. First of all,AZT will not bond to each and every reverse transcriptase enzyme in the body,and therefore it cannot shut down the HIV production completely. The reason forthis is because to put enough AZT in the patient to completely shut down the HIVproduction would probably kill the patient. The second, and most serious problemwith AZT is that it also goes into normal, healthy cells and will inhibit theirreverse transcriptase enzyme and will therefore inhibit their ability to producenew, healthy cells. However, AZT does have an ability to specifically target HIVinfected cells to a certain degree so that it does not kill each and every cellit gets into. However, it does kill a high proportion of the cells that it getsinto, thereby giving it a high toxicity level. The formula for AZT is C H N O . The molar mass of AZT is 267.24 gramsper mole. AZTs melting point is between 106 C and 112 C. AZT is soluble inwater, which is important so that it may dissolve into the human blood and bedistributed to the cells. AZT is usually taken in a pill format, but it isabsorbed by the skin, which can make it dangerous for people handling the drug. .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81 , .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81 .postImageUrl , .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81 , .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81:hover , .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81:visited , .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81:active { border:0!important; } .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81:active , .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81 .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uab596cb28a1d7692ffb45d67e4df3c81:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Walt Disney Yen Financing EssayThere is quite a bit of controversy about the effectiveness of AZT. Mostexperts agree that AZT delays the progression of HIV disease; the drug may alsoprolong the disease-free survival period. However, many doctors still disagreewith using AZT as a treatment for AIDS. Peter Duesberg, a professor of molecularbiology at the university of California, Berkley, says that In view of this,the cytotoxicity level of AZT there is no rational explanation of how AZTcould be beneficial to AIDS patients, even if HIV were proven to cause AIDS.This comment stems from the fact that AZT has a very high cytotoxicity level,which means that while it kills the inf ected cells, it will also kill perfectlyhealthy cells. According to Dr. Duesberg, AZT will kill approximately ninehundred and ninety nine healthy cells for each infected cell that it kills. Mostof this opposition to AZT stems from the fact that the initial testing for thedrug had severe problems associated with it. These initial tests were performedwith two groups of AIDS patients. The volunteering patients were secretlydivided into two groups using a double-blind system, where neither the patientsnor the doctors are aware of who is in the placebo, or control group, and who isin the AZT group. These tests were performed by the FDA at twelve medicalcenters throughout the United States. The study actually became unblinded almostimmediately as some patients discovered a difference in taste between theplacebo and AZT caplets and other patients took the capsules to chemists to havethem analyzed. The doctors found out the differences between AZT patients andthe placebo patients by very ob vious differences in blood profiles. An FDAmeeting was convened and the decision was made to keep all of the useless data,and therefore the bad data was thrown in with the good data and it ended upmaking all of the data virtually useless. In fact, according to some sources,AZT ended up shortening the lifespans of many of the patients taking it. AZT isalso thought to be a possible carcinogen, although it has not been around longenough for any conclusive results to be obtained. After AZT was approved for use,mortality statistics were taken, they showed a mortality rate of 10% after 17weeks, with the original number of patients being 4805. The FDA tests, withtheir skewed statistics, showed only a 1% mortality rate. AZT also had somestrange side-effects that were reported with its use, such as raising the IQsof 21 children who took the drug by 15 points, 5 of the children died. The newest treatments with AZT are combining AZT with other drugs, suchas ddI. These tests were being performed, once again in the double-blind format,just like the original FDA tests. Three different groups were tested, onestaking only AZT, ones taking only ddI and ones taking a combination of both ddIand AZT. The Data Safety Monitoring Board (DSMB), and organization that monitorsall testing in the United States secretly unblinded the test, as they do withall double-blind tests, and found that the AZT patients had a much highermortality rate than those in the straight ddI and the ddI and AZT tests. TheDSMB found the difference in the tests to be high enough to stop the trialsearly. In August of 1994, the FDA approved AZT for use by pregnant, AIDSinfected women. Once again it was conducted in a double-blind method and wasplacebo controlled. The therapy was begun 14-34 weeks after pregnancy. However,in this testing it was found that in the AZT mothers, the AIDS transmission rateto the babies was about 8.3% while the placebo group was about 25.5%. Thereforethe AZT was reducing the AIDS transmission by two thirds. .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c , .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c .postImageUrl , .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c , .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c:hover , .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c:visited , .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c:active { border:0!important; } .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c:active , .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u438316db6e91d6997f76c8a8a28eee7c:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Psychodynamic view EssayIt is still not clear as to the effectiveness of AZT to stop or hinderthe progress of the AIDS virus. Most experts today consider AZT to be a validway to treat AIDS and HIV infection, but they are constantly experimenting withnew combinations of different drugs such as ddI and AZT to try to better treatAIDS patients. The massive administrative errors in the initial testing have setthe AZT research back and have fostered unlooked for antipathy. As thetreatments become more sound and more reliable, AZT will find its place in AIDStreatments. EndNotes Lauritsen, John. Poison by Prescription The AZT Story. New York; AsklepiosPublishing, 1990. pg.7. Lauritsen, John. Poison by Prescription The AZT Story. New York; AsklepiosPublishing, 1990. pg.7. Lauritsen, John. Poison by Prescription The AZT Story. New York; AsklepiosPublishing, 1990. pg.23. Lauritsen, John. Poison by Prescription The AZT Story. New York; AsklepiosPublishing, 1990. pg.49. Whitmore, Arthur. AZT Approved for Preventing Maternal-Fetal HIVTransmission. Internet: http://www.hivpositive.com/f-DrugAdvisories/II-FDA/4.htm. August 8, 1994. BibliographyLauritsen, John. Poison by Prescription The AZT Story. New York: AsklepiosPublishing, 1990. Pinsky, Laura. Douglas, Paul Harding. Metroka, Craig. The Essential HIVTreatment Fact Book. New York: Simon ; Schuster Inc., 1992. Kaiser, Jon D. Immune Power A Comprehensive Treatment Program for HIV. NewYork: St.Martins Press, 1993. Whitmore, Arthur. AZT Approved For Preventing Maternal-Fetal HIV Transmission. Internet: http://www.hivpositive.com/f-DrugAdvisories/II-FDA/4.htm,August 8, 1994. Whitmore, Arthur. FDA Grants Accelerated Approval For 3TC With AZT To TreatAIDS. Internet: http://www.hivpositive.com/f-DrugAdvisories/II-FDA/17.htm,November 20, 1995. Clark, Martina. AZT: Pediatric Study Changed. Internet:http://www.out.org/HIV/AZT_pediatric_study_changed.htm, W.O.R.L.D. ANewsletter about Women HIV April 22, 1995. Science

Book Censorship and Banning of Childrens Books

Book Censorship and Banning of Childrens Books Many people think that book censorship, challenges and book banning are things that happened in the distant past. That is certainly not the case. You may also remember all of the controversy about the Harry Potter books in the early 2000s. Why Do People Want to Ban Books? When people challenge books it is generally out of a concern that the contents of the book will be harmful to the reader. According to the ALA, there are four motivating factors: Family ValuesReligionPolitical ViewsMinority Rights. The age level for which a book is intended does not guarantee that someone wont try to censor it. Though the emphasis seems to be on challenges to childrens and young adult (YA) books some years more than others, attempts are also continually mounted to restrict access to certain adult books, often books that are taught in high school. Most complaints are made by parents and are directed to public libraries and schools. The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution states, Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. The Fight Against Book Censorship When the Harry Potter books came under attack, a number of organizations joined together to establish Muggles for Harry Potter, which became known as kidSPEAK and focused on being a voice for kids in fighting censorship in general. KidSPEAK stressed, Kids have First Amendment rights- and kidSPEAK helps kids fight for them! However, that organization no longer exists. For a good list of organizations that are dedicated to fighting book censorship, just take a look at the list of sponsoring organizations in my article about Banned Books Week. There are more than a dozen sponsors, including the American Library Association, National Council of Teachers of English, American Society of Journalists and Authors and the Association of American Publishers. Parents Against Bad Books in Schools PABBIS (Parents Against Bad Books in Schools), is just one of a number of parent groups around the country challenging childrens and young adult books in classroom teaching, and in school and public libraries. These parents go beyond wanting to restrict access to certain books for their own children; they seek to restrict access for other parents children as well in one of two ways: either by getting one or more books removed from the library shelves or having access to the books restricted in some way. What Do You Think? According to article Public Libraries and Intellectual Freedom on the American Library Association Web site, while it is important and appropriate for parents to oversee their childrens reading and media exposure, and the library has many resources, including booklists, to assist them, it is not appropriate for the library to serve in loco parentis, making judgement calls appropriate for parents in terms of what their children do and do not have access to rather than serving in their capacity as librarians. For More Information About Book Banning and Kids Books ThoughtCo addresses the issue in the article Censorship and Book Banning in America about the controversy surrounding the teaching of the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn in an 11th Grade American Literature class. Read What Is a Banned Book? and how to save a book from banning by ThoughCo  to learn how you can prevent book censorship.

Architecture Made Famous by Americas Presidents

Architecture Made Famous by Americas Presidents Remember the phrase George Washington slept here? Ever since the founding of the country, Presidents of the United States made otherwise ordinary places famous.   1. Presidents Homes All US Presidents are associated with the White House in Washington, DC. Even George Washington, who never lived there, oversaw its construction. In addition to this common residence, all US Presidents are associated with personal residences. George Washingtons Mount Vernon, Thomas Jeffersons Monticello, and Abraham Lincolns home in Springfield are all good examples. Then there are all the childhood homes and birthplaces of our presidents. Of course, nobody knows who will become president, so many of these early homes were torn down before they became part of history. Surprisingly, the first president to be born in a hospital, instead of a home, was President Jimmy Carter, our 39th president. 2. Presidential Retreats Have you ever noticed how the presidency ages the person in office? Its a stressful job, and the president must make time for rest and relaxation. Since 1942, the country has provided Camp David as a get-away for the presidents exclusive use. Located in the Maryland mountains, the compound was a 1930s project of the Works Progress Administration (WPA), a Depression-era New Deal program. But Camp David is not enough. Every president has had a retreat- some have had both summer and winter White Houses. Lincoln used the Cottage at the Soldiers Home, now known as Lincolns Cottage. President Kennedy always had the family compound in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts. George Herbert Walker Bush went to Walkers Point in Kennebunkport, Maine. Nixon had a little concrete block ranch house in  Key Biscayne, Florida, and Truman set up shop at the Little White House in Key West, Florida. All presidents are welcome to use Sunnylands, once a private residence, in  Rancho Mirage, California. All too often, presidential retreats like Sunnylands and Camp David have also been used to meet with foreign leaders in a less formal setting. Remember the Camp David Accords of 1978? 3. Sites of Presidential Events All presidential events dont happen in Washington, DC.   Bretton Woods, a gorgeous hotel in the mountains of New Hampshire, was the site of an international agreement after World War II. Similarly, President Woodrow Wilson traveled to the Palace of Versailles outside of Paris, France, to sign the treaty that ended World War I. These two places are historic landmarks for what happened there. Todays presidents campaign, debate, and rally constituents all across the United States- in town halls and convention halls.   Presidential events are not DC-centric- even the site where George Washington took the oath of office in 1789 was in Federal Hall on Wall Street in New York City. 4. Monuments to Presidents Any community can memorialize a favorite son, but Washington, DC is the main setting for the nations monuments. The Lincoln Memorial, the Washington Monument, and the Jefferson Memorial may be the most famous in DC, but Mount Rushmore in South Dakota may be the most iconic presidential tribute carved in stone. 5. Presidential Libraries and Museums Who owns a public servants papers? has been a question hotly debated- and legislated. Presidential Libraries did not come into existence until the 20th century, and today raw, archival information, along with the massaging of the presidential message, are combined in buildings like the Bush Library in College Station, Texas and the other Bush Library in Dallas. We take special note of these historic buildings, monuments, and research centers, and await the conflicts that will, no doubt, surround the next presidential library building. It seems to happen every time. A Sense of Place Most of us will never become president, but we all have a sense of place in our lives.  To find your special places, answering these five questions: HOME: Where were you born? Not only the city and state, but have you gone back to see the building? What does it look like? Describe your childhood home.RETREAT: Where do you go to relax and find peace? What is your favorite vacation place?EVENT: Where was your graduation ceremony? Where was your first kiss? Did you ever have to speak to a large group of people? Where were you when you won an important prize?MONUMENT: Do you have a trophy case? Will you have a gravestone? Have you ever built a monument to memorialize someone else? Should monuments even exist?ARCHIVES: Chances are that all of the papers in your life will not be kept forever, because there is no legal requirement to do so. But what about your digital trail? What have you left behind, and where is it?   Fun With Presidents Places George Washington Slept Here starring Jack Benny and Ann Sheridan, DVD, 1942 movie directed by William Keighley, based on a play by Moss Hart and George S. KaufmanLEGO Architecture Series: The White House

A Very Different Age - Americans of the Progressive Era Essay

A Very Different Age - Americans of the Progressive Era - Essay Example During this era, the American society experienced various changes socially, economically and politically. The bulk of the book deals with how American people felt during the revolution and to what extent their lives changed. The book focuses on society as a whole, and does not emphasize on a particular person or event alone, there was a lot of struggle and opposition between people, as Diner writes "living increasingly in an interdependent society comprised of large institutions, individual Americans made numerous choices and competed with each other as never before to control their lives"( 3). A very different age narrates the efforts of and lives of different groups of people during the progressive era, including, businessmen and industrial workers, small businessmen and big businessmen, industrial workers and farmers, European immigrants and African migrants, middle class women and men, industrial workers and middle class workers, businessmen and professionals. The reform included the growth of "labour unions joined mostly by businessmen"(47), but these unions removed the "African Americans", women joined the workforce, immigrants accepted low paid jobs for the sake of improving their overall status, they were mostly employed in factories and mills. Inhabitants of America felt superior to the immigrants; farmers mostly had to depend on the vague capitalist system to earn a respectable income, "African American" had to fight for their rights to freedom, most of them flee the country, but it was the middle class that appeared to be the most powerful during the progressive era. According to Diner, despite the progress, there were many setbacks that occurred during the revolutionary era. Thousands of Americans still lived in poverty; African Americans struggled for their identity and "racism" (125) existed. The writer skillfully includes the work of many historians in his book; he praises some of the reformers of the time but criticizes many renowned progressives like "Teddy Roosevelt" (229) and "Woodrow Wilson (219)" who worked for their selfish motives instead of bringing change, Diner disparagingly asserts that "progressives, like other Americans, joined a contest for control under rules set by industrial capitalism" The author explains in his book that the "historians"(199) believe that the political behaviour of many Americans during the progressive era changed widely as fewer votes were cast and citizens no longer remained linked to their political parties as strict laws prevented them to cast votes. Furthermore, many social historians believed that common people were victims of intolerance and inequality, and there were many people who faced the harsh circumstances bravely and travelled from place to place in search of better jobs. People who left were mostly farmers and industrial workers, whereas, most of the urban came to America and urban population in South increased by 900,000(131), "Midwestern farmer's children went further west to buy more lands" and "African Americans" moved to rural areas. A diner is of the view that the progressive period though brought many gains but it at the same time ruined the lives of many. The "Industrial Revolution" had a different impact on different people; with its many accomplishments, it also created problems for many people. The revolution affected women’s lives most negatively and their lifestyle changed significantly.     Ã‚  

Strategic planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Strategic planning - Essay Example Apart from UK, Next plc has major operational bases in Sri Lanka, India, and China. As of last year, the revenue of the organisation stood at GBP 3.7 billion while registering GBP 695 million in pre-tax profits (Next plc, 2014). Apart from its well-organised workforce, the operations of the enterprise mainly depend on its sound business model, which appreciates the input of all the stakeholders involved, including the customers and shareholders. Next plc assures its shareholders of extensive returns that come in the form of sustainable growth in earnings, shares and cash disbursements (Next plc, n.d). To the customers, the organisation routinely develops a broad range of classy products that gratify the needs of children and adults across both genders. Next plc has made it simple for its customers to make purchases, as they have the provision of making both online orders and payments. Most of the deliveries are often made within a twenty-four hour period, with the online platform serving customers in over seventy nations. Over and above, the administrators of the o rganisation run the business in a responsible manner, taking into consideration all the environmental, social, and ethical aspects of the market. The fluctuation of the global market makes it mandatory for businesses to be malleable and ready to adapt to alterations. These changes are routinely achieved in the form of business policies that are adapted by the management and employees of the entity involved (Bensoussan et al. 2013, pg. 317). The next segment of the essay aims to use various strategic tools to make sense of most of the methodologies employed by Next plc in an attempt to ensure that it habitually realizes its business objectives, and remains relevant for a considerable duration. The pestle tool has often been appreciated across several industries because it provides businesses with the opportunity to understand the political, economic,

Mirror Neurons Essay Example for Free

Mirror Neurons Essay The sight of a strangers foot getting hammered induces an instant surge of sympathy within us. Watching a friend nauseate after eating something repulsive quickly causes our own stomachs to turn. This ability to understand and relate to another individuals internal state has provided great motivation for research. One source of explanation arose from research on mirror neurons-which fire both during execution and observation of a behaviour (Rizzollati Arbib, 1998). This particular class of neurons plays a crucial function in human social interactions. The importance of the mirror neuron system (MNS) for communication can be understood through its influence on nonverbal communication including facial expressions and hand gestures and verbal language. Furthermore, disorders affecting human communication-such as autism and schizophrenia-convey the impression of stemming from a malfunctioning MNS. Generally, human social interaction involves both verbal and nonverbal forms of communication. Obvious examples of nonverbal communication are facial expressions and hand gestures. A recent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study by Montgomery and Haxby (2008) found evidence supporting the claim that the MNS contains distinct representations for facial expressions and hand gestures. Particularly, this study examined the inferior parietal lobule and the frontal operculum as the potential MNS brain regions involved in nonverbal communication. Further evidence comes from another fMRI study by Montgomery, Isenberg and Haxby (2007)-which demonstrated the activation of the MNS during hand movements used to manipulate objects and hand gestures used to communicate. A third fMRI study by Van, Minderaa and Keysers (2007) highlighted similar results by examining other putative MNS brain regions-inferior frontal gyrus, posterior parietal cortex, insula and amygdala-thought to be associated with facial expressions. Activity spontaneously increased in the MNS of participants that produced and observed certain facial expressions (Van et al., 2007). A study by Enticott, Johnston, Herring, Hoy, and Fitzgerald (2008) demonstrated an associations between mirror neurons and facial emotion processing. Instead of using fMRI as a method of analysis, Enticott and colleagues (2008) used the transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) technique. In brief, much evidence supporting the involvement of the MNS in the processes of facial expression and hand gesture exists. Such forms of communication form the basis for the later, more complex, verbal language development. Taking this thought further, verbal language also seems to be linked to the MNS. Firstly, Rizzollati et al. (1998) marked the discovery of mirror neurons in the F5 area within the monkeys’ frontal cortex. This primate-specific F5 area has been considered to be the homolog of the human Broca’s area, which is a region crucial for language (Rizzollati et al., 1998). With this in mind, Horwitz et al. (2003) demonstrated that both spoken and signed language are associated with mirror neurons firing in Broca’s area as a result of the production of language. In addition, an fMRI study by Aziz-Zadeh, Wilson, Rizzollati, and Lacoboni (2006) made evident that the MNS of the premotor cortex is activated both when participants observed mouth, hand and foot movements and when participants read phrases related to these body parts. Overall, these findings suggest that indeed the MNS influences verbal language. Moreover, another way of understanding the importance of the mirror neurons’ influence on human social interaction is by considering the consequences of a malfunctioning system. Autism spectrum disorder is characterized by social and language impairments. In other words, individuals with autism tend to be less interactive when it comes to communicating with others. Part of the MNS-the posterior inferior frontal and rostral inferior parietal areas are affiliated with social behaviour and imitative learning; however these areas have deficits in autistic individuals (Locoboni Mazziotta, 2007). In one study individuals with autism spectrum disorder showed significantly different electroencephalography (EEG) recordings of mirror neurons compared to a control group consisting of healthy individuals (Oberman, Hubbard, McCleery, Altschular, Ramachandran, Pineda, 2005). Similarly, schizophrenia is another disorder characterized by deficits in social communication, especially of the nonverbal type. Research by Kato Y., Muramatsu, Kato M., Shibukawa, Shintani, and Mimura (2011) using magnetoencephalography recordings on the right inferior parietal cortex showed atypical mirror neuron activity in non-treated schizophrenia patients. Likewise, similar results were found in a study that tested mirror neuron activity using TMS,; it was demonstrated that during action observation a reduction in motor facilitation occurs in schizophrenia patients (Enticott, Hoy, Herring, Johnston, Daskalakis, Fitgerald, 2008). Clearly, communication impairments observed in individuals with autism and schizophrenia are influenced by the MNS. In conclusion, human social interaction is influenced by mirror neurons. Evidence supports this statement through research done on the involvement of the MNS in nonverbal communication, including facial expressions and hand gestures and verbal language. Research has also suggested that an impaired MNS negatively affects social interaction, which is exemplified in the cases of autism and schizophrenia. Taken as a whole, combining mirror neurons’ role in imitative behaviour and social interaction-the process through which humans possibly acquire new social knowledge becomes evident. Additionally, the presence of mirror neurons in primates as well as humans provide evidence for the development of social interaction over the course of evolution. Thus, in order to further strengthen their existing relationship, future research should examine the co-evolution of mirror neurons and social interaction.

The AT&T Restructuring of 1995 :: essays papers

The AT&T Restructuring of 1995 Wednesday, September 20, 1995, AT&T Chairman and Chief Executive Officer Robert E. Allen announced plans for a strategic restructuring that would separate AT&T into three publicly traded global companies. Robert E. Allen said, "The company was taking this bold step to capitalize on the opportunities in each business' segment of the global information industry -- communications services, communications equipment, and transaction-intensive computing." Under the plan, a fourth business -- AT&T Capital Corporation -- would be sold, and AT&T shareowners would hold shares in each of the three remaining companies. "Changes in customer needs, technology and public policy are radically transforming our industry," said Robert E. Allen. "We now see this restructuring as the next logical turn in AT&T's journey since divestiture. It will make AT&T's businesses more valuable to our shareowners, even more responsively to their customers, and better able to focus on the growth opportunitie s in their individual markets." A focus of one of the new companies will be to provide the best communications and information services worldwide. The services company, operating under the familiar "AT&T" brand name, would consist of AT&T's current Communications Services Group, the AT&T Universal card Services Corporation, the newly established AT&T Solutions consulting and systems-integration organization, and AT&T Wireless Services. The services company plans to create an AT&T Laboratories unit around the core of the Bell Laboratories. "AT&T's products and systems businesses, along with the world-renowned Bell Laboratories, would constitute a communications systems and technology company that would immediately be the global leader in its industry," said Robert E. Allen. The communications equipment company would include AT&T's Network Systems Group, Global Business Communications Systems, Consumer Products, AT&T Paradyne and Microelectronics. The new company named Lucent Technologies, would be a powerful compe titor in the fast-growing communications systems market. Henry B. Schacht was designated Lucent Technologies Chief Executive Officer. The company's computer unit AT&T Global Information Solutions (GIS), would be established as an independent company by spinning it off to AT&T Shareowners. "Our services and systems businesses are at the intersection of tremendous change and opportunity," said Allen. "This restructuring ensures that each can follow the path of greatest opportunity without worrying about bumping into each other along the way." Lars Nyberg was announced Chief Executive Officer for NCR, formerly known as GIS, the new computer company.