Ethics of Research Trials in Developing Countries

Ethics of Research Trials in Developing Countries Zoheb Rafique INTRODUCTION: Asia is the most diverse continent in the world in terms of culture, religion, population size, finance, education, health care, academic research, general population skills, and governmental drug regulations. Each Asian country has its own unique qualities when it comes to attracting industry sponsored clinical trials. Factors that influence selecting location of a study site for a sponsored trial are mainly population size, infrastructure, education levels, quality of health care, cost and drug regulatory platform. Some Asian countries such as Japan, Hong Kong and Singapore have among the longest life-expectancy, lowest infant mortality and highest per capita income worldwide, while others are in the lower end of such rankings. Several, notably China and India, are amid rapid economic development, as the Asian economy is more-or-less becoming the global axis, with the economies of US and Europe slowing. Asia has a population of 3.8 billion, at least ten times more than North Americ a or Europe. As the world’s most populous continent, Asia has by no means reached full capacity in contributing with subjects in testing new medical products in collaboration with the international pharmaceutical industry. This trend will certainly direct more sponsored clinical trials to Asia, but not necessarily benefit all Asian countries. Engaged in 18.1 % of all protocols globally Asia is involved in more sponsored trials than any other region. India, Korea and Taiwan standout as the most active locations for multi-national trials in Asia. When ranking is for cities Seoul is the most active Asia city, followed by Taipei, Hong Kong, Singapore and New Delhi. The globalization process of sponsored clinical trials has provided an opportunity for Asia to attract international companies to the region and also seemingly encourages development of local life-science industries (1). In this paper, I will discuss the responsibilities of researcher/funder when the research trial is conducted in developing countries and especially in our country Pakistan and I will also talk on ethical justifications of doing research trials in Pakistan and other poor and developing countries. DISCUSSION: Resource poor countries require a lot of attention from the medical research establishment in order to sustain the quest for treatments and remedies for diseases and other health-threatening conditions. However, the collaboration between rich countries and well-endowed agencies, on one-hand, and economically constrained research communities, on the other, requires a careful assessment of responsibilities and options for researchers and research subjects alike. Major players in international research also include big pharmaceutical companies who seek people living in developing countries as subjects. Safety and standard of care for human volunteers are also major issues. â€Å"I had not been exploring Big Pharma of third world ‘volunteers’ as cheap guinea pigs, observes writer John le Carre (2001). â€Å"Their role, though they may not ever know this, is to test drugs, not yet approved for testing in the US, which they themselves will never be able to afford even if the tests turn out reasonably safe† (le Carre, 2001). In the US, it costs on average $ 10,000 per patient to conduct a clinical trial, in Russia $ 3,000, and in the poorest parts of the world, much less. This is one of the strong reasons why clinical trials are now a Third World growth industry. In the end, the drugs under trial are for western markets. In its May 2000 edition, Center Watch, a newsletter for the burgeoning clinical trials business, published an exuberant article under the title Latin American Fever in which it said the continent ‘may offer a unique opportunity to reach much larger numbers of study subjects’. Eli Lilly tested 590 patients, in 1994, across Africa, the Middle East and Central and Eastern Europe. In 2001, the company expected to run tests in those regions on 7,309 patients. It is not only the human subjects who are at risk. In the rush to market, poorly constructed, weakly monitored trials are releasing untried and untested drugs for con sumption (le Carre, 2001). The Contemporary practice of biomedical research on a global scale has given rise to evolving forms of exploitation. Standards of justice and equality tend to be put in question in the face of research practices that often put heavy burdens on poor people and poor communities in poor countries. There is a need to remain vigilant in the prior review of these activities and the monitoring of their implementation in order to ensure that biomedical research is conducted in accordance with universally acceptable standards. One of the most important requirements for the conduct of research in developing countries is emphasized in the WHO-Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences’ Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects: to guarantee that those communities where these new drugs have been tested will be given affordable access to the newly developed and approved drugs. Otherwise, one might rightly argue that people in d eveloping countries have yet again been exploited by Western researchers without benefiting from the positive results their risk-taking has yielded (Del Rio, Kamarulzaman, and Schuklenk, n.d.). Ruth Macklin observes that it is not just individuals who can lose out when big drug companies carry out their tests. When industrialized countries do research in a developing country, the developing country can’t afford the products of that research. The researcher’s pullout and the successful products then become available in the Western industrialized countries and the population in the countries where the research was done get nothing. So that’s truly a question of justice, and we’re beginning to see a movement to rectify that injustice (2000). The wide disparities in resources that are available for biomedical research in developed and developing countries give rise to ethically relevant issues of research prioritization and collaboration. The international re search community has to accelerate the shift to an environment where researchers from developing countries are recognized as full and equal partners in biomedical studies; where the technologies of developed and developing countries are integrated and made widely available; and where the benefits of biomedical research for participant communities can be ensured (2). In resource-poor countries like Pakistan and majority of developing countries, the two primary means of protecting participants-IRB review and Informed Consent may be inadequate. IRBs in developing countries may lack training, experience, and resources. IRBs in the United States are unlikely to be familiar with conditions in the host country. Informed Consent may be problematic in a country where people are poorly educated and lack health literacy, and where physicians in clinical practice usually do not tell patients their diagnosis, admit uncertainty, or obtain consent. Participants may not accept Western models of dis ease. Furthermore, participants might hear rumors and other misinformation about a research study. In several highly publicized cases, researchers from developed countries have been harshly criticized for allegedly conducting inappropriately risk studies in resource poor counties without adequate consent. The other problem is health priority and it would be an imprudent use of limited health care resources in a developing country to conduct human-participants research that does not address a health or public health priority in the host country. Because of scarce resources and logistical constraints, medical interventions that are standard in developed countries may not be available or feasible in resource poor countries where the trial is conducted. This creates an ethical tension between providing a benefit to research participants and obtaining generalizable scientific knowledge. According to the ethical obligation to minimize harm to participants, researchers should provide inter ventions that are known to be effective and feasible to prevent or treat the condition addressed in the clinical trial. Because participants in a research study help researchers, sponsors, and society at large, they should receive some benefit in return as a matter of reciprocity. Advocates contend that researchers and sponsors must avoid taking unfair advantage of participants and their communities by providing those who bear the risks of research appropriate benefits, in addition to the long-term benefit of generalizable knowledge. Researchers and Sponsors need to consider whether the study intervention will be available in the host country if it is shown to be effective and safe. Some ethics expert point out that providing reasonable access to study interventions after a trial may be an inadequate reciprocation for participation in research. First, it is too limited and weak an obligation. If the study is something other than a pivotal clinical trial (for example, an epidemiologi cal study), no additional benefits will be required. Even if the study is a clinical trial, it might be a negative study. Second, other benefits might be more useful to participants or their communities than the trial drug. For example, they might benefit more from better primary care or better education for host country health care workers. Third, the appropriate target group for benefits may be all persons in the community where the study is carried out, not just trial participants. Providing benefits only to trial participants will widen health disparities in the resource-poor host country and therefore raise concerns about causing injustice. Thus, providing benefits to the host country should be done in a way that ameliorates rather than worsens health disparities. For these reasons, some writers argue that researchers and sponsors from the developed world should provide fair benefits to the research participants and their communities in reciprocity for what they contribute to the research. Researchers could provide benefits to research participants in a number of ways, such as by providing health education or some basic health services; training local health care workers, researchers, and IRBs; donating equipment at the end of the study; and giving local investigators a key in analyzing data and writing papers. Such contributions ensure that the community where the research is carried out will receive benefits in reciprocity for participating in the research. By building infrastructure, researchers can help provide sustainable improvements that will help to narrow health disparities between rich and poor nations (3). Pakistan is also among the poor and one of developing country and the health care conditions here are same as any South Asian or African country. We will apply the same ethical and moral rules when we talk about research here in Pakistan. Ethical requirements for clinical research do not end when individuals either sign the consent form or are enrolled in research or refuse enrollment. Individuals must continue to be treated with respect from the time they are approached even if they refuse enrollment throughout their participation and even after their participation ends. Respecting potential and enrolled subjects entails at least 5 different activities. First, since substantial information will be collected about enrolled subjects, their privacy must be respected by managing the information in accordance with confidentiali ty rules. Second, respect includes permitting subjects to change their mind, to decide that the research does not match their interests, and to withdraw without penalty. Third, in the course of clinical research new information about the effect of the intervention may be gained. Respect requires that enrolled subjects be provided with this new information. Fourth, the welfare of subjects should be carefully monitored throughout their research participation. If subjects experience adverse reactions, untoward events, or changes in clinical status, they should be provided with appropriate treatment and, when necessary, removed from the study. Finally, to recognize subject’s contribution to clinical research, there should be some mechanism to inform them of what was learned from the research (4). CONCLUSION: The basic disclosure requirement for satisfying the informed consent provision in U.S. research regulations focus on information needed by a potential participant to decide whether or not to participate in a study. Of the eight basic disclosure requirements, one focuses on potential benefits: a description of any benefits to the subject or to others which may reasonably be expected from the research. Traditionally, such a disclosure has been required to ensure that potential participants understand whether there is any possibility that the intervention itself might benefit them while they are enrolled in the study. There is, however, no specific mention of any post-trial benefits. If any case, those who may participate in studies should be informed of the potential benefits, if any, that they might receive by doing so. Because this information is relevant to participants’ decisions to participate in the research, ethics review committees should require investigators to make th ese disclosures (5). In the end I will conclude by saying that research participants should know each and every thing regarding their participation in the research trial or rejecting it, and it is their right to know all risks and benefits while participating in the research trials and this should be applicable to all countries around the world including all developing countries and also our country Pakistan. REFERENCES: 1. Johan PE Karlberg. Development of Sponsored Clinical Trials in Asia. Clinical Trial Magnifier. 2008; Vol. 1:5: 77-100. 2. Leonardo D. de Castro Et Al. Bioethics in the Asia-Pacific Region: Issues and Concerns. 2003; 1-108. 3. LO B. Clinical Research in Resource-Poor Countries. Ethical issues in Clinical Research: A practical Guide. 2008; Ch.22:194-210. 4. Ezekiel J. Emanuel Et Al. What Makes Clinical Research Ethical? JAMA. 2000; 283(20): 2701-2711. 5. Ch 3; Voluntary Informed Consent. National Bioethics Advisory Commission. 35-53.

Business coursework; Fish and Chip shop (Burnham high street) Essay

Introduction I am doing an investigation on a small local business to identify ways that it could be improved and what the business is doing wrong at the moment that is preventing it from making the progress that it could make. The local shop that I chose was the fish and chip in Burnham high street, SeaWorld. I chose this shop because I am a fan of seafood and when I go into a seafood place I expect to find many items that are actually seafood but normally they have different varieties of food but rarely any seafood. They normally have kebabs, chips, burgers, but chips are a necessity with fish. Preparation We started off making our individual surveys for both customers and workers and chose the best survey to be printed out. We also were planning on tasting the food in SeaWorld as well to see how good the product was. We thought of the types of shop that would be competitors. What we did For our research we had about an hour to go to the fish and chip shop in Burnham high street, but unfortunately SeaWorld was closed so we decided that some of us would take out the surveys on the public while the other group would see how the point of sale looked and find anything wrong with it. There were quite a few surveys done, and we managed to figure out some problems with the point of sale. Luckily there was a worker inside SeaWorld who did not mind us asking questions about his workplace. I think that we had taken a few surveys of people who go there regularly, but would have liked to see how the business was when it was open. Things like how many people go there, what there menu was, how well priced the food was, what majority of the regular customers thought of the seafood shop. We also looked out for competitors and how accessible their shops are, how their shops looked and how close they are to SeaWorld. Place SeaWorld is in Burnham high street and because it is quite a small high street even a small number of competitors would be a problem. There aren’t any seafood restaurants or seafood take-away as such in Burnham high street but there are cafes and fast food shops and there is a seafood shop in Burnham. These are also competitors because if people go into these shops it can pose a threat to the business of SeaWorld by reducing its market share. The other issue with the place is how easy it is for the customers to access the shop in terms of parking, distance and is there a contact number so they can order over the phone? The restaurant has a telephone number next to the restaurant’s name which is convenient for the customers and the business because it won’t be crowded so they will have enough seats but they will still be getting the sales and revenue. The first take- away or restaurant that you see when you enter the high street from hog fair lane is SeaWorld which means that for ease of access and to save time people will go here. Therefore I think that the place that the seafood shop is not bad, but the look of the point of sale from the inside and outside needs to change. It needs to be re-painted and the inside needs to be looking more spacious to attract more customers. Product I did not have the opportunity to get a good look at their menu because at the time they were not open, but from what I saw there was a range of fried and battered fish food, chips and drinks which is what their customers would expect and this makes them look good. There was a problem though which was that on the outside of the shop there was a label that said ‘kebabs’ that is something that you wouldn’t expect in a fish and chip shop and I don’t know if they do sell kebabs but if they didn’t then that would be misleading the customers which would be irritating for them and they could potentially lose customers. If they did have kebabs then it would be inappropriate. Price I was not able to ask or look at the prices that they had for their food but the price needs to be below five pounds for each product and above a pound. If the products are priced too highly customers would not buy from that shop and if it was too low then they will be at a loss and will not be able to run efficiently. Theoretically the lower the price the more demand there is for that product, but you also need to balance between charging high enough to cover costs but low enough to keep the customers buying. Sometimes even if the prices are high the demand still remains the same, this is because things like customer service is good and the product also should be better than others. For the seafood shop it means that they need to be friendly to customers, deliver orders on time and put the customer’s needs and requests first. Promotion Walking along Burnham high street I did not see any form of promotion for the seafood shop. This is one of the crucial factors of getting a small business to succeed. If people do not know where you are or even if you exist then how will you get more customers? The seafood shop does not even have a website which means that it makes it harder for people find out about such a shop. The locals around Burnham high street might know about the shop but not many other people will. Therefore they need to find a form of promotion that will allow them to be known but not too expensive either. Picking the promotion The ways of promotion best for SeaWorld is through leaflets through letter boxes, this is a form of promotion suited to this business because it will be spread throughout the local area, because people from other areas are not going to travel a long way just to get to SeaWorld and it is not that expensive. The down side to leaflets is that it is often seen as junk and discarded, so it has a low success rate and you would need to find someone to hand them out or put them in letterboxes this means they need to pay that person as well. Another way that is cheap and affordable is advertising in the local newspaper, this would reach a wide local audience and there is only the cost of publishing it in the newspaper. The size of the advert can be adjusted so that it fits the budget of the seafood shop, but to get a large sized advert that is well designed it may be expensive. Another promotion that is totally free, very reliable and trustworthy is customer word-of-mouth recommendation; this is when customers recommend the shop to family and friends. When it is recommended by family and friend’s people trust that it is a good shop and go there, but it is the customer’s choice to do it and you cannot control it. You can aid this by providing excellent customer service, good value for money and good standard of food. A good thing to advertise is offers like buy one get one half price or tokens on newspaper or leaflets that have good offers which they can claim. Offers for a meal are actually cheaper than buying them all individually so it encourages customers to buy more and they would chose a place that has offers on food to one that does not. Loyalty cards are also a good incentive to get new customers and keep existing customers to come back for more and this would increase sales because a certain number of purchases would get them a reward, which is normally more food. Frequent customers would feel angry that they do not get discounts or complimentary food. Survey of worker We did a questionnaire on the worker about the Seafood shop, and working conditions and he seems to be very positive about working there, but from how he spoke we realised that he was being bias so we cannot really trust everything that he said. He said that it was a good environment to work in and that the working conditions were good. The environment would be good because it would be busy. The workers seem happy and motivated therefore I would expect the customer service to be good as well and the food to be of a good standard. I asked what kinds of fringe benefits or monetary benefits they get but it seemed that he did not get any. The staff cannot be kept well motivated for long without any benefits. The owners can make the staff more motivated by giving monetary benefits at first and then fringe benefits. At first they would find that money is what they need and will be motivated when money is at the other end and it will be cheaper to give small monetary benefits than fringe benefits. When the business grows it can afford fringe benefits and the workers need benefits other than money to motivate them. The easiest fringe benefit could be a discount on the food in the fish and chip shop, or free lunch for the workers. To keep them well motivated there needs to be a better fringe benefit that they will get for working well or achieving a target number of sales.

The Benefits of Samples of a Mission to Mars Essay

The Benefits of Samples of a Mission to Mars Essay Many facets of our modern lives wouldn't be possible if it weren't for our interest in space. Intensity is about how much men and women push themselves to finish a job. It would be an issue of time prior to the urge for exploration would start to peak and make endless possibilities. As time passes, several concept missions are studied, but not one of them got beyond the analysis phase. The company is presently running an on-line auction to induce competition and lower the sourcing cost. That means you can imagine a mission statement for a combo of what your small business or non-profit does and how and why it does it, expressed in a manner that encapsulates the values which are important to you. In addition, a customer may ask the writer to submit part of the job for review and, if needed, ask them to make corrections. The search at every step is accomplished in a brute-force fashion, but an important element of MARS is tha t because of the essence of hinge functions the search can be accomplished relatively quickly utilizing a fast least-squares update technique. Leading businesses and agencies offer an estimate on the price of tripping to Red Planet. The key conditions of the treaty included the cessation of numerous Jesuit missions to Portugal. This info can help you to prepare the ideal speech on Chandrayaan two mission of India, ISRO. Chandrayaan two mission will help to learn more about the south polar area of the moon that's very less explored. Samples of a Mission to Mars Essay - Is it a Scam? Additional seasonal caps of frost show up in the wintertime. Among the long standing regions of research regarding the Martian atmosphere is its effect on the presence of liquid water. These massive scale waves propagate from the decrease atmosphere upwards and cause altitude changes of the primary ionospheric peaks as a function of planetary longitude. These channels look as though they might h ave been created by running water. It is advised to look for the one which has an excellent reputation and offers high-quality papers at very affordable prices. Normally, the movie isn't badmuch better than the remainder of the science-fiction productions we are being fed regularly. It is a fairly complicated thing,'' he explained. For some individuals, it can help to think back on why they started their company in the very first spot. The main reason why the date is so specific is as this is the closest time that Mars and Earth is going to be aligned in an appropriate approach to lessen the roundtrip to Mars. There's a hard-working explorer that is now attempting to answer that question about Mars! The technology to reach Mars isn't inexpensive, and nobody appears to be willing to cover it. To start with, Hinners pointed out, much important science can't be carried out remotely at Mars. If You Read Nothing Else Today, Read This Report on Samples of a Mission to Mars Essa y Citations and extracts from assorted sources have to be formatted properly. This mineralised type of iron-oxide may be used for the preservation of aqueous processes. Additionally, many content on Science Trends is written by the key author of the peer-reviewed research in which they're writing. Things You Should Know About Samples of a Mission to Mars Essay These critical players developed over two thirds of the spacecraft parts for the probe in addition to the rocket. So, Musk's very first step was to create an affordable rocket. In addition, the system should be user-friendly for the astronauts. In reality, the first mention of Earth is in ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics. This is believed to be due to the blood-red color of the planet that was also employed by other ancient cultures. Other civilizations throughout history also have named the planet owing to its color. Additionally, it gathered praise from all over the world. In this instance, the aim is to purchas e packages from several suppliers at the minimal possible price tag. Occasionally it looks like Watney doesn't fully realize the scales of his circumstance. The primary problem is handling the faint young sun. The issue of all modern-day rockets is they are, in reality, disposable. Mars is the solitary planet that has a workable atmosphere that is vulnerable to Terraforming methods in the range of human technology. It's beneficial to compare MARS to recursive partitioning and this is achieved below. NASA also utilized the probes to seek out micro-organisms. For astronomers, it's just as important to know where the planets are so they can observe them. The Fight Against Samples of a Mission to Mars Essay The cost of shelter is going to be integrated into the expense of travel. Astronauts on interplanetary travel, on the flip side, are wholly exposed. Subsequently, it would lower the price of the manned mission significantly. Opportunity, on the flip side, landed on the other side of Earth. Samples of a Mission to Mars Essay - Is it a Scam? The Chandrayaan two mission grabbed the interest of the entire world to India. It's because uniform men and women in a team might be comfortable, but they can't understand the things that they don't know. All that's missing is a wonderful name, he explained. All that's missing is a wonderful name! The Tried and True Method for Samples of a Mission to Mars Essay in Step by Step Detail The cost of an essay is dependent upon the total amount of effort the writer has to exert. Here we've given some suggestions to assist you in your speech on Chandrayaan two mission in English. Individuals are motivated to get there at work in time, finish a project a couple of hours early, or aim for a number of other targets. Students will make a visual about their assigned mission to grow the class timeline.

Reflection On Writing - 801 Words

Throughout this semester I learned a lot about writing essay. Before this course I knew only one style of essay, because in high school, I wrote essay only for Literature classes. In this class I found that writing could be structured in many ways. Moreover, all reading that I have helped me to think critically and analyze all information that I get. A large number of examples in these readings and my own experience in this course introduced me that sometimes people are getting mislead, because of misinformation or setting wrong belief into the reader. All of these I get from this class, including practicing writing in the formal style and improving my English. The first project was unfamiliar to me, because of my little experience in the†¦show more content†¦The â€Å"factcheck† part was very interesting, because it opened my eyes that some of the trusted and huge news corporation like â€Å"CNN† could mislead their readers. Beginning from that time I’m trying to analyze all information that I get from new, social networks and TV. It developed in me the sense of evaluation information. The last and largest project the most interesting one. We have to write argumentative essay about how mass media trying to mislead us and set’s wrong belief in the reader. I appreciate that our professor gives a free for students to choose their own theme. Because of my interested in the theme I was dived into researching and finding articles which prove my argument. When I was finding counterarguments for my writing, I saw different views on my argument. It is very helpful to see other points to think critically and you could be more confident in your argument if you know both sides. The fear of something usually set mass media and we have to dispel the fog of obscurity. An this is the most worthy occupation. 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The Deaths of Romeo and Juliet Essay - 2168 Words

The Deaths of Romeo and Juliet Romeo and Juliet is a tragic love story set in Verona, Italy in the late 1500s. It is a moving tale of two young people, Romeo and Juliet, who fall in love. The displeasure and anger of their feuding families, the Montagues and the Capulets, who are long time enemies, however, complicate their love. The feud between the households, underlines the entire tragedy, and in my opinion it is one of the most responsible reasons for Romeo and Juliets deaths. The play starts with a Prologue, which is an opening to the play. It was normal for plays written in this time to start with one. It gave the audience a brief summary of what was going to happen in the play. In†¦show more content†¦The feud was the setting of the tragedy. Without it, Romeo and Juliet would never have had to keep their marriage and love a secret. This is shown in the opening of the Prologue, The fearful passage of their death markd love, And the continuous of their parents rage, Which, but their childrens end nough could remove. The feud aggravated characters such as Mercutio and Tybalt to express anger towards their enemies, which ended in fights that ended in fatalities. When Tybalt saw Romeo at the party, he immediately wanted to kill him, and didnt stop to think that Romeo wasnt doing anything wrong. When Tybalt confronted Romeo, all Romeo wanted was peace. In his mind Romeo was a Montague and a Montague is and enemy. Tybalt wanted to kill Romeo because he thought it was disrespectful for Romeo and his friends to turn up to the Capulets ball uninvited and not welcome. He sees this as the only way to seek revenge after; Romeo has humiliated his family by arriving at the rival familys ball. If the feud had not existed, then Tybalt would have had no reason to confront Romeo and to kill him. 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Understanding and Interpreting Financial Statements Anglo American Plc Free Essays

Introduction Anglo American Plc. is a publicly traded firm listed at the London and Johannesburg stock exchanges, and headquartered at the UK. It is one of the largest mining companies in the world with operations in North and South America, Australia, Japan, India, Brazil and other Asia and Europe. We will write a custom essay sample on Understanding and Interpreting Financial Statements: Anglo American Plc or any similar topic only for you Order Now The company has a portfolio of different products including iron and manganese; metallurgical and thermal coal; precious metals and minerals (comprising of platinum and diamonds); base metals, which include copper, nickel, and niobium; and other mining and industrial products. Ratio Analysis of Anglo American Plc In this report, ratio analysis is used to analyse the financial performance of Anglo-American during the period of 2008 to 2012. The analysis of Anglo American’s financial statement focuses on liquidity and profitability ratios. Liquidity Ratios Liquidity ratios are used to measure the capability of the firm to repay its short-term debts and meet unanticipated cash needs (Drake, 2013). There are several types of liquidity ratios. In this report, current ratio and working capital are computed. Anglo American’s current ratio had a slight decrease in 2012 (2.05), compared to 2011 (2.36). The decrease is attributed to the decrease in assets in 2012. The lowest current ratio was recorded in 2008 (0.71). This is due to liabilities being greater than current assets caused by the global economic crisis. The working capital of Anglo American was also slightly lower in 2012 (US$9,244 million) than in 2011 (US$11,124 million). The lower working capital is again due to lower assets. In 2008, the company had a negative working capital (US$3,819 million). The company had higher liabilities than assets in 2008 due to losses incurred from the crisis. Profitability Ratios Profitability ratios are used to determine the ability of a firm to generate profit for its shareholders. Profitability ratios also measure the competitive position of a firm (Robinson et al., 2009). Profitability ratios include: (a) net income, (b) net profit margin, (c) return on assets (ROA), and (d) return on equity (ROE). Net profit is calculated by subtracting total expenses from total revenue. It shows the company’s earnings or loss within a given period. Net profit is also referred to as net income or net earnings (Elliot Elliot, 2005; Myers Brealey, 2007). In 2012, the net profit of Anglo American decreased compared to 2011 and was negative (US$ -1,688 million). The low net profit is due to higher total expenses/operating costs than total revenue. The mining industry suffered from higher mining production costs in 2012 and this is reflected in the higher expenses of Anglo American. Net profit income was also low in 2009 (US$ 2,740 million) as the company slowly recovered from the 2008 economic crisis. Net profit margin measures the amount of profit that a firm generates per unit of sales (Bodie et al., 2007; Robinson et al., 2009). Net profit margin was negative in 2012 (-0.06 or -6%). This is much lower than the net profit margin in 2011 (0.31 or 31%). The lower net profit margin is also attributed to higher operating costs. Net profit margin was also in 2009 (0.13 or 13%). ROA is a measure of the net profit created per unit of dollar invested in capital (Arnold, 2005). Anglo American recorded a negative ROA value (-0.02 or -2%). This is due to negative net profit caused by higher total expenses. ROE serves as a measure of the net profit that is created per unit of dollar investment in shareholders’ equity. In 2012, ROE value also decreased (-0.04 or 4%). This is much lower than ROE value in 2011, which is calculated at 0.22 or 22%. It can be observed that Anglo American witnessed an overall decline in its profitability between 2011-2012, and 2008-2009. The decline in profitability can be attributed to a number of factors. One reason is the decrease in the prices of mining products. Commodity prices witnessed an overall decline between the first half of 2011 and the first half of 2012. This decline had a negative impact on the sales revenue of Anglo American during this period. Additionally, there was a 24% decline in achieved Australian export metallurgical coal prices; a 21% decline in achieved Free on Board (FoB) iron ore prices; an 18% decline in realised South African export thermal coal prices; a 12% decline in realised copper prices; and a 13% decline in realised platinum prices between the first half of 2011 and the first half of 2012. These decreases in export prices had a negative impact on sales revenue and thus the profitability of Anglo American during this period. Anglo American’s profitability has also been negatively affected by high mining costs. This also had a negative impact on the industry as a whole. Moreover, Anglo American witnessed an increase in its overall unit production costs owning to an increase in mining costs between the first half of 2011 and the first half of 2012. This increase in unit costs helped in increasing costs of sales which in turn led to lower gross profit margins in 2012. There was also a 57% increase in exploration costs between the first half of 2011 and the first half of 2012. This increase was driven mainly by increased metres drilled owning to favourable weather conditions in Australia and Chile as well as a ramp-up in drilling activities at the Sakatti polymetallic project in Finland (Anglo American, 2012). Meanwhile, the decline in 2009 from 2008 can be attributed to the effects of the global financial crisis. The crisis had a significant negative impact on prices of commodities during the crisis period covering 2007-2009. Comparative Ratio Analysis Anglo-American vs. Rio Tinto The comparative analysis of the ratios of Anglo American vis-a-vis Rio Tinto is presented in Appendix 2. This presents the performance of Anglo American and Rio Tinto in 2012. Rio Tinto is one of the largest mining companies in the world. Its main business activity is the extraction of minerals and refining operations. The financial analysis ratios used are current ratio, working capital, net profit/income, net profit margin, ROA and ROE. In terms of current ratio, Anglo American has a higher ratio than Rio Tinto for both 2012 and 2011. Having a higher current ratio indicates that Anglo American has lower current liabilities than Rio Tinto. Similarly, the comparison of working capital between the two companies shows that Anglo American has higher working capital than Rio Tinto. This is attributed to the lower current liabilities of Anglo American. In terms of net profit/income, Rio Tinto had higher values than Anglo American. In 2012, Anglo American had negative net profit; while Rio Tinto had achieved high net profit. This is due to the fact that Anglo American incurred losses in 2012 due to higher operating expenses. Additionally, Rio Tinto’s total revenue is nearly double than that of Anglo American. In terms of net profit margin, Anglo American had a negative value in 2012 due to total expenses exceeding total revenues; whereas, Rio Tinto had a higher value. This is due to the higher total revenue achieved by Rio Tinto. In analysing ROA, it appears that Rio Tinto performed better due to its higher total assets; while Anglo American had a negative ROA. Similarly, in terms of ROE, Rio Tinto had a better performance; while Anglo American had negative value in 2012. This is due to the higher shareholder equity and high net profit achieved by Rio Tinto. Overall, it can be said that the Rio Tinto had a better performance than Anglo American in terms of profitability; while Anglo American performed better in terms of liquidity. Rio Tinto is also bigger than Anglo American in terms of assets, revenues, and expenses. However, Anglo American had smaller liabilities than Rio Tinto. Recommendations The company can improve its performance by focusing on emerging markets. The four largest mining companies in the world in terms of market capitalisation have focused the bulk of their operations in emerging markets. By increasing its market and operations in emerging markets, Anglo American would be able to compete with other large mining companies. Additionally, Anglo American should focus its sales and expansion plans on China, which currently accounts for the use of about 40% of global metal production. It is expected that China will remain as the mining industry’s most important customer in the years to come. The company should consider engaging in merger and acquisitions deals with firms based in China. These will provide Anglo American with the means of gaining direct access to the Chinese market. Other expansion strategies such as joint ventures with Chinese companies should also be considered. The company should also implement strategies to fund its projects with other financial sources such as retained earnings (internally generated funds). In order to achieve this, the level of dividends and share repurchases will need to be reduced. The non-payment of dividends can be justified by the opportunities for growth currently available to the company, such as market expansion and growth opportunities in China. Conclusion The objective of this paper was to provide an analysis of the performance of Anglo-American Plc. Financial statement analysis using liquidity and profitability ratios were used in analysing the performance of Anglo American. The same ratios were used in the comparative analysis between Anglo American and Rio Tinto. It can be observed that Anglo American has performed relatively well from 2008 to 2011. However, 2012 was not a good year for the company owing to declining commodity prices and rising mining costs. The company performed poorly compared to its industry and sector. The performance of Anglo American was also compared to Rio Tinto, one of its major competitors and one of the biggest mining companies in the world. The analysis of the two companies’ financial statements for the period of 2011-2012 suggests that the Anglo American performed better than Rio Tinto in terms of liquidity; whereas Rio Tinto appears to have performed better in terms of profitability. Appendices Liquidity Ratios Current Ratio 20122011201020092008 Current Assets18,047.0019,302.0014,348.0010,411.00 9,305.00 Current Liabilities 8,803.00 8,178.00 7,882.00 6,745.0013,124.00 Current Ratio 2.05 2.36 1.82 1.54 0.71 Working Capital 20122011201020092008 Current Assets18,047.0019,302.0014,348.0010,411.00 9,305.00 Current Liabilities 8,803.00 8,178.00 7,882.00 6,745.0013,124.00 Working Capital 9,244.0011,124.00 6,466.00 3,666.00(3,819.00) Profitability Ratios Net Profit/Income 20122011201020092008 Total Revenue28,761.0030,580.0027,960.0020,858.0026,311.00 Total Expenses30,449.0021,141.0019,294.0018,118.0019,461.00 Net Profit/Income(1,688.00)9,439.008,666.002,740.006,850.00 Net Profit Margin 20122011201020092008 Net Profit/Income(1,688.00)9,439.008,666.002,740.006,850.00 Total Revenue28,761.0030,580.0027,960.0020,858.0026,311.00 Net Profit Margin(0.06)0.310.310.130.26 Return on Assets (ROA) 20122011201020092008 Net Income(1,688.00)9,439.008,666.002,740.006,850.00 Total Assets79,369.0072,442.0066,656.0056,308.0049,738.00 Return on Assets(0.02)0.130.130.050.14 Return on Equity (ROE) 20122011201020092008 Net Profit/Income(1,688.00)9,439.008,666.002,740.006,850.00 Shareholder Equity43,787.0043,189.0037,971.0028,069.0021,756.00 Return on Equity(0.04)0.220.230.100.31 Appendix 2: Comparative Analysis of Anglo American vs. Rio Tinto Anglo AmericanRio Tinto Ratio2012201120122011 Current ratio2.052.361.391.46 Working capital9,244.0011,124.005,402.006,932.00 Net profit/income(1,688.00)9,439.0013,611.0024,277.00 Net profit margin(0.06)0.310.270.40 ROA(0.02)0.130.120.20 ROE(0.04)0.220.230.41 References Google Finance (2013) Anglo American plc (LON:AAL) available online at: http://www.google.com/finance?q=LON%3AAALei=tQdgUrDRM6TCwAOdXQ [accessed: 17th October 2013]. Anglo American (2012) HALF YEAR FINANCIAL REPORT for the six months ended 30 June 2012 , available online at: http://www.angloamerican.com/~/media/Files/A/Anglo-American-Plc/media/releases/2012pr/interim-results-2012.pdf [accessed: 17th October 2013]. Brealey R. A., Myers S. C. (2002) Principles of Corporate Finance. 7th Edition. McGraw-Hill Irwin. Elliot B., Elliot J. (2005). Financial Accounting and Reporting. 9th Edition. Prentice Hall Financial Times. Penman, S. H. (2007) Financial Statement Analysis and Security Valuation, 3rd ed. Irwin: McGraw-Hill. Robinson, T. R., Greuning, J. H., Henry, E., Broihahn, M. A. (2009), â€Å"Financial Analysis Techniques† in Financial Reporting and Analysis, CFA Program Curriculum, vol. 3, Pearson Custom Publishing. Bodie, Z., Kane, A., Marcus, A., . 2007., Investments, 7th ed. Irwin: McGraw-Hill. Arnold, G. (2005). Corporate Financial Management. 3rd Edition. Prentice Hall, Financial Times How to cite Understanding and Interpreting Financial Statements: Anglo American Plc, Essay examples

E-Commerce

Question: Write a report to analyze the website of GreyTeak Technologies. Answer: Introduction The website provided is for the processional software development company known as GreyTeak Technologies. The website is for the organization of Melbourne in Australia. It is a business websites, which includes for the business-to-business purpose. The maintenance of the business data is the main priority for the website. They are cost-effective and upgrade the systems for the value of money. The website provided a simple online brochure that rarely changes any article. A database-driven database system addition will facilitate to engender the client database (Pallud and Straub 2014). Overview of the websites The given website is created with the objective to inform customers with the services that the company provides. It also initiates to make a clear communication with the clients. The website is for the business-to-business purpose. It is a business websites where clients can login to order their projects. They use headlines and sub headlines use bullets points instead of long sentence. The website is used with contrasting color in the text and the background to make a easy read. They use minimal images for their website and add some graphics into it. The website consists of easy navigation for the users. Main feature of the website GreyTeck Technology provides opportunities for their effective customers and involved in the quality checks of the products they develop. The professionals who make it more presentable with technical competencies make the website. The website consists of crucial business information and details about their services. The website provides good hosting with 24/7 technical assistance The website is easy to use for the clients. They can easily logged in and access the website. Positive aspects of Website Design through expertise The expertise involved is knowledgeable, experienced and reliable. The team consists of the Specialists Business Process Analysts to the Software Developers and the Engineers who understand the software in much effective way. Further, the expertise also delivers the work on time. Further, it takes responsibility and fixes the issues in the initial stage (Sinha 2016). Professional Support of the Engineers The engineers provide an advanced support for all the requirements. They minimize the downtime at the time of upgrades and maintain the rectification of the sessions. They provide quick solution for the system failures. Database Driven Websites The website that the company creates is creative and unique. It connects the back office systems with the website of the company. They even integrate the online payment options through EWay and PayPal. Simple and Easy to use The company can convert the manual through which is time consuming into secured web applications. The clients can access the website throughout the world. The engineers have the experience to provide from the simple to complex web and the database systems (Pallud and Straub 2014). Negative aspects of the website Crashes and Uptime The website sometimes crashes which makes them to create an adverse aspect for the website. Connectivity problem The websites does not involve a complete easy connection with the clients. The login details are not much updated. Less information The website provides very few information and missed many points. They did not mention much about the order taking procedure and does not create a attractiveness through innovation (Kil et al. 2014) Publicity problem The website does not published and creates a feedback option so that clients would read the experience of previous clients. They do not connect with the social networking sites. Q1. Determine whether it is in the exposure stage, interaction stage, e-commerce stage or ebusiness stage. The website provided is in the exposer stage. The organization uses the internet as the electronic brochure or the bulletin board. It makes an additional publication channel which the prospective clients need to obtain from the organization (Cheek et al. 2016). The company has not yet build as a ecommerce site. It needs to include updating and addition to transform into ecommerce stage. Further, it consists of just the information about the company and its services. The login in details is not much effective. Q2. Estimate the hardware and software requirements of the website. Software Requirement Operating system Editor Windows Notepad Mac OS TextEdit Linux Emacs Web Browser Mozilla Firefox Microsoft Internet explorer Google Chrome Hardware Requirement Item Web Server Processor 1.6 GHz CPU RAM 1.7 GB RAM Q3. Analyze the current website and formulate an E-Commerce implementation strategy The current website, which the organization of the given website uses, is the business website. The website is the non- editable brochure website. The brochure website is the online extension of the sales collateral. The briefs of the website are on the proposals that are received on the full content management system. The company does not use the full capabilities of the websites. They update the news and the staff pages (Cebi 2013). The company uses printed brochure which some animated graphics on it. The website is visually polished and professional. The company has given its importance on the reflection of the company and its services. The main attempt of the website is to provide and relate with the web presence. The website of GreyTeak includes the information about each service. It gives clear information about each service. The goals initiated in the websites enable to create the importance of the goal (Dickinger and Stangl 2013). The information about each service is given i ncluding the benefits that the client will get from the service. The websites provides a clear view about the contact email and login details. The website has presented a wide variety of service for the clients. However, it needs to add the crucial strategy to make the e-commerce implementation more compact. They need to make the website in a way so that it reduces the time for the project team in launching a high quality of the E-Commerce platform. The clients expect to make the process flow easier with quick service. The clients also include getting details about the service that they need to use. An effective e-commerce website would enable the customer to meet the expectations (Huang and Benyouce 2013). The company needs to integrate the policy of the back office applications with the order management. The company needs to develop the website which would simplify the payment process. They need to expedite the shipping along with enhance the personalized service (Cyr 2014). The company needs to develop high level of features and determine the customization with the ease of integration. Further, the E-Commerce needs to include the online store, where the clients can give the order with easy access. The content on the website need to create through better design and requirement phases. The strategy phase needs to evolve ways to present the content so that it enables the interest of the customers (Gray 2013). The ecommerce website needs to implement a predominant role. The existing website need to re-platform the existing website. They need to implement an online portal that will target the online strategy, which defines the metrics accurately and meets the entire requirement. The company further needs to adopt the hosted ecommerce software and the self-hosted open source ecommerce software (Barnes and Hunt 2013). The software would provide the company with ecommerce tools and features. They will further enable to create the technical system administrative in operating the website. The company website needs to add the option of SSL encryption. It is a protocol for transmitting the private document via the internet. It will enable the customers make transmission through credit card more securely. A database-driven database system inclusion will enable to generate the customer database so that the company can send promotional e-mails. Q4. Estimation of the hardware and software requirements of the proposed Ecommerce website The company as discussed used to develop the software on windows. However, it is good option in the initial stage. However, if the company wants to plan for expansion they need to configure the software tools accordingly. The company can adopt Centos for its website hosting. Further they need to develop the Mac for the purpose of designing. The company as been discussed need t implements the Hosted ecommerce software and the Self-Hosted source ecommerce software. Hosted ecommerce would enable to create a hosted ecommerce shopping charts where they do not need to be technical (Wiegers and Beatty 2013). The software does not need any coding it needs to drag and drop technology. The company can also imply Shopify, which is considered as one of the best software in the market. It gives 24/7 support and qualifies experts are available if the company needs to customize the design and the functions. The company needs to adopt L L Bean. The company needs to consider some questions while deciding the updating of the hardware system. The webshop is high-traffic or low-traffic or the number of visits in the website per day or per month. They need to consider the maximum number of simultaneous visitors. They need to concentrate on the maximum number of orders that the company gets in the shopping basket. Further they need to consider the size and the complexity of the product catalog. The most important among them is the size of the database that the company is implementing (Monk 2016). The company needs to update the RAM and the Processor. The company needs to combine the web and the database server for which the recommended processor is 4* 1.6 GHz CPU. The company further needs to implement RAM of 7GB. Conclusion The website is the business website which is the non- editable brochure website. The main effort of the website is to provide and relate with the web presence. The organization need to add the vital approach to create the e-commerce realization more compressed. An effective e-commerce website would allow the client to assemble the prospect. High level of objectives needs to include so to achieve the implementation budget and the technology environment. Reference list: Barnes, S. and Hunt, B. eds., 2013.E-commerce and v-business. Routledge. Cebi, S., 2013. Determining importance degrees of website design parameters based on interactions and types of websites.Decision Support Systems,54(2), pp.1030-1043. Cheek, R., Sale, M.L. and Schwarz, C., 2016. Creation of an Instrument to Measure Website Effectiveness Using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). Cyr, D., 2014. Return visits: a review of how Web site design can engender visitor loyalty.Journal of Information Technology,29(1), pp.1-26. Dickinger, A. and Stangl, B., 2013. Website performance and behavioral consequences: A formative measurement approach.Journal of Business Research,66(6), pp.771-777. Gray, D.E., 2013.Doing research in the real world. Sage. Huang, Z. and Benyoucef, M., 2013. From e-commerce to social commerce: A close look at design features.Electronic Commerce Research and Applications,12(4), pp.246-259. Kil, S., Lee, G. and Kwon, J., 2014. MD-portal: Highly Effective Website for Nuclear Materials Information Management. Monk, S., 2016.Raspberry Pi cookbook: Software and hardware problems and solutions. " O'Reilly Media, Inc.". Pallud, J. and Straub, D.W., 2014. Effective website design for experience-influenced environments: The case of high culture museums.Information Management,51(3), pp.359-373. Sinha, P., 2016. Strategic Analysis of Website Design-An Exploratory Study of Viewers Expectations.Indian Journal of Science and Technology,9(13). Wiegers, K. and Beatty, J., 2013.Software requirements. Pearson Education.